The Frame Overo

When I first sat down to go through my photographs, I was hoping to have five or six good examples of the Frame Overo trait. I was pleasantly surprised to find so many mustangs with this particular pattern. Interestingly, I found Frame Overo mustangs only at Sand Wash Basin and Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary. It is entirely possible there are some Frame Overos at other management areas, but neither Karen nor I had photographed any of them. The Frame Overo is also unique to North America. This paint pattern is common only in Spanish Colonial Horses or their descendants. However, the trait occasionally but rarely appears in European-derived horses such as Thoroughbreds, Ethiopian breeds, and miniature horses (Sponenberg, 2009).

The Frame Overo Paints are horses that have white patches superimposed on a background of any base colour such as roan, bay, palomino and so on. The white colour often begins as a patch on the neck or barrel and spreads horizontally. The back almost always remains solid coloured between the withers and tail. The white patches are irregularly edged and splashy (Bailey & Brooks, 2013) although some white markings are clean and crisp, similar to tobianos (Sponenberg, 2009). The markings usually do not have the lacy or frosted appearance of Sabino Paints (Kerson, 2015)

The tail is usually one colour and at least one leg is usually solid coloured although often all four legs are solid. If the legs are solid, they may have socks or stockings one might find on a non-paint horse. The markings on the head are often extensive, bonnet or apron-faces are common. Additionally, they may have a pigmented upper or lower lip, or 'moustache' (Sponenberg, 2009).

The genetics are simple, the Frame trait is autosomal dominant, which means a Frame foal must have one Frame parent. However, if both parents have the Frame gene, there is a 25% possibility the foal will be homozygous and have two Frame genes. This foal will not survive because a homozygous Frame is linked to another genetic defect which causes loss of peristalsis (the wave-like action that moves food through the intestines), or more rarely, an incomplete colon. (Bailey & Brooks,2013). More information and examples are located at the bottom of this page.
FF= Normal color
Ff-= Frame Overo
ff= Overo Lethal White

---

Perhaps one of the best-known Frame Overos is Picasso from the Sand Wash Basin. This handsome Bay horse is one of the most photographed mustangs and he has a Breyer Horse modelled after him. He is a Bay Frame Overo (and possibly carries other paint traits). Many of his numerous offspring are Frame Overos including two know Lethal White foals. There will be more information on this genetic anomaly presented below.

Picasso Picasso

---

This is an excellent example of a Bay Frame Overo stallion. Note the white markings on neck and barrel as well as the four solid coloured legs. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

---

The horse on the right is a Chestnut Frame Overo Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

---

A small family band with a Sorrel Frame Overo Stallion and a Frame Overo foal. In the management ranges, we cannot be certain of a foal's parentage. Identifying a foal's dam is generally more reliable than the sire. However, mares have been known to steal foals from other mares. Additionally, fillies will leave their natal bands briefly, breed with another stallion, and return to their natal band to deliver and raise the foal within the band they were born. Without genetic testing, we cannot be certain. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

---

A Chestnut Frame Overo. The pigmented lip is common and may appear on the upper lip, lower lip, or both as this mustang mare demonstrates. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

---

The Chestnut Frame Overo is unusual because the right hind leg is extensively marked with white. This may be an anomalous finding, or an indication there are other paint genes present, possibly Sabino. The heavily white face and body markings are more characteristic of Frame Overos. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

---

This charmingly marked dark (liver) Chestnut Frame Overo mare is called 'Crazy Horse'. The freckles on her face are also known as Belton Spots and similar to the spotting found in English Setter dogs. Many horses with Belton Spots on their facial markings, also show "ermine spots" on their legs.  From Sand Wash Basin.

---

Although not perfectly focused, this Bay Frame Overo has Belton spots on his blaze as well as ermine spots (black spots on socks that are usually found along the coronet band). The ermine spots can cause the hoof to darken and appear striped. From Sand Wash Basin

---

These two beautiful sparring stallions are from Sand Wash. Kiowa on the left (Bay) and Haze on the right (Sorrel). Haze is a minimally marked Frame Overo- can you find the tiny white mark on Haze?

---

This is Miss Fleck- she is a Chestnut Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin: the first image is her as a foal, the second image as a young mare. She was born into Voodoo's band a but later joined Picasso's band (2013). Picasso has since lost his band but he has been doing well as a bachelor. Fleck gave birth to a Lethal White Foal.

Fleck: foal, right side Fleck: left side

---

This is Kiowa from the near side (left) from Sand Wash Basin. He had just been in a fight and you can see lacerations on his hip and shoulder. There is also a significant scar on Kiowa's left haunch just below the laceration. It is believed he tangled with either a mountain lion or a wound from fighting that became infected. It is also possible he ran into a fence along the border of Sand Wash Basin and neighbouring ranches.

---

This is Raindancer. A lovely Chestnut Frame Overo with blue eyes from Sand Wash Basin.

---

This is an excellent example of a Bay Frame Overo mare from Sand Wash Basin, Colorado with a pigmented lip, flank markings and a small shoulder marking.

---

Here is a lovely colt Named Van Gogh, he is one of Picasso's many Frame Overo offspring from Sand Wash Basin.

---

This is Yatzee on the left and a grey stallion on the right from Sand Wash Basin. The grey is actually a Frame Overo - if you look closely at his neck, you'll see the faint outline of the original white mark in the middle, just under his mane. He also has some white markings on his barrel. Some people refer to grey paints as "ghost paints". In the winter it is impossible to tell them apart from solid grey colour horses. A wet grey paint in a summer coat is the easiest to recognise because you can see the underlying skin colour: pink under white markings and darker under the base colour

---

Another "Ghost Paint- Frame Overo Grey from Sand Wash Basin. The horse on the left has several white Frame markings on his neck, barrel and just above his stifle. He also has the distinctive white apron face with the pigmented lip. The pink skin of the white marking is especially noticeable on this horse's muzzle. If you see a horse with a pigmented lip, there is a good chance they are a paint- often a Frame Overo. The middle horse is also a Frame Overo, this time black with four white stockings.  Four white stockings may indicate this mustang has other paint genes.  The last horse is a Bay Frame Overo with a usual number of white leg markings. Generally, the leg markings do not rise above the knees in Frame Overos.

---

This family band has two Frame Overos from Sand Wash Basin. The foal, a chestnut beginning to grey-out, and the sorrel stallion. Again, notice the solid coloured legs which help distinguish Frame Overos from Tobiano Paints.

---

A handsome Grullo Frame Overo gelding from Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary Black Hills is a wonderful rescue organisation, please click on the link to find out more

---

A Black Frame Overo from Black Hill  Wild Horse Sanctuary

---

Bay Frame Overo with a stunning pattern from Black Hill  Wild Horse Sanctuary.

---

Two Black Frame Overos from Black Hill  Wild Horse Sanctuary. Note the tendency for Frame Overos to have solid colour on the spine from the withers to the dock.

---

Sugar, a Grulla Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

---

This stallion is a Chestnut Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin. It is evident he is thin but these horses receive no care. Many of the horses are underweight from untreated injuries, dental issue, and other injuries or infections that go untreated. It is truly survival of the fittest and only the strongest survive to reproduce. He was a very fiesty stallion, sparring with the bachelors and band stallions.

---

A dark chestnut Frame Overo Paint from Sand Wash Basin with very little white on his belly (the rest is dried mud)- referred to as a minimal Frame Overo. This stallion is called Spyder.

---

A Minimal Dun Frame Overo Paint from Sand Wash Basin.

---

This beautiful grey colt is a minimally marked Frame Overo. All four legs are solid and there is no white mark on either side. According to Sponenberg (2013), this horse will sire horses with varying amounts of white. Becuase of the lethal white syndrome, any Frame Overo owner should test both horses prior to breeding to avoid the chance of a foal that will not survive. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

---

---

A minimally marked Black Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin.

A beautiful Black Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin name Lightning. He was believed to be over 35 years of age at his death one year ago. He is one of the stallions responsible for the Frame Overo trait becoming so prevalent at Sand Wash Basin. He lived all his years free running amongst the Colorado sage.

A minimally marked Bay Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin with very little white and four solid legs.

---

Another Minimal Frame Overo Chestnut. This is Mimi, she is a foal by Picasso. Sh has white socks but they are normal height one normally associates with solid coloured horses. The first is her right side, the second image, her left.

---

A lovely Palomino Frame Overo colt named Meteor. He has a lot of white on both hinds legs (the white goes up the front of the leg to the stifle) and this indicates there is probably another paint gene such as Sabino, is present. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

---

Kokomo, a Bay stallion by Picasso and a minimally marked Chestnut Frame Overo mare. Although they are muddy, the mare has solid legs and Kokomo has both white legs marked with white including a thin strip almost reaching his chest. Although he is heavily marked with white, like his sire, they both have solid coloured backs. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

A very Minimally Marked Frame Overo. The other side is also solid. However, there is a white spot on this stallion's tail evident by the light colour at the end. The facial marking (apron and pigmented lip) are good indicators of a Frame Overo. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

---

Lethal White

---

The Frame Overo (Ff or Oo) trait is found on the equine chromosome #17 at the same locus (location on a chromosome) that controls EDNRB (Endothelin Receptor B) (Sponenberg, 20009). The change in the dinucleotide that occurs in Frame Overos changes an amino acid from isoleucine to lysine which disrupts the function of the EDNRB. In homozygous Frame Overo horses (Ff), the functional inability of Receptor Type B proteins (EDNRB) causes loss of gastric ganglia precursor cell migration and loss of melanocyte migration (Bailey & Brooks, 2013).

The loss of function in EDNRB prevents the embryologic migration of:

• Gastric ganglia precursor cells from migrating, which means a loss of enervation in the digestive tracts. No nerves ending exist in the colon of these horses and function is completely disrupted. Rarely the loss of EDNRB function results in an incomplete colon (ileocolonic aganglionosis). Foals with either gastric malformation die within a few days of birth and it cannot be surgically corrected.
• Melanocyte migration means loss of pigment, resulting in white colouration. 

In heterozygous horses, the presence of one "f" results in partial solid colour, but the digestive system is normal. In lethal white, the presence of two "ff" results in a pure white horse (no melanocyte migration) and a non-functional colon, or a blocked, atrophied, or dead-end colon. The loss of gastric enervation has a similar aetiology to Hirschsprung's Disease in humans. Overo Lethal White Syndrome is found in Frame Overo horses as well as highly white calico overo, and frame blend overo (>94%) (Santschi, Vrotsos, Purdy & Mickelson, 2001)

Mingo X Picasso

©Nancy Roberts ©Nancy Roberts

---

Picasso X Fleck

©Danielle M. Williams  ©Danielle M. Williams  ©Danielle M. Williams

---

Here is the link for more information on the Lethal White Syndrome including a handy Punnett Square

---

References

Bailey, E., & Brooks, S. (2013). Horse Genetics (2nd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: CABI.

Gower, J. (2016). Horse Color Explained: A Breeder's Perspective. Brattleboro, Vermont: Echo Point Books & Media, Inc.

Kerson, N. (2015). What Color is that?  A quick guide to horse color identification: Nancy Kerson- Self Published

Santschi, E. M., Vrotsos, P. D., Purdy, A. K., & Mickelson, J. R. (2001). Incidence of the endothelin receptor B mutation that causes lethal white foal syndrome in white-patterned horses. Am J Vet Res, 62(1), 97-103.

Sponenberg, D. (2009). Equine Color Genetics (3rd ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell.


***A special thanks to Heather Robson & Nancy Kerson for identification and inspiration, respectively

---

About the Author & Photographers

AUTHOR & PHOTOGRAPHER

Dr. Meredith Hudes-Lowder, DNP, WHNP-BC, MSN, BSN, RNC, BS Biology
Meredith received a Bachelor of Science Degree from Binghamton University with an emphasis in ethology and genetics. She received a Bachelor of Science in Nursing also from Binghamton and a Masters of Nursing in Perinatal/Women's Health from Stony Brook University. She has a Research Doctorate of Nursing Practice from Stony Brook University. Her doctoral thesis was a research study on cervical cancer screening intervals. She was invited to present her research findings at the podium for the Nurse Practitioners in Women's Health Annual Conference in New Orleans, October 2016. She is a member of several professional organisations and was inducted into Sigma Theta Tau- the Nursing Honor Society in 2007.

---

PHOTOGRAPHER
Karen McLain: Painter, artist, photographer

Karen McLain is a third generation Arizona native. Growing up in Arizona, she developed a deep appreciation for the outdoors, and for the rural and ranching lifestyle. Karen graduated from Arizona State University with a B.A. in Studio Art. She went on to pursue more traditional and realistic styles, and to create a style of her own. A number of commissioned works are accepted from collectors. The rest of the time, Karen can be found drawing or painting en plein air. These landscapes and life studies of wild horses are then developed into larger works in her studio.

McLain states: ”Painting from life not only reveals natures beauty first hand, but it also challenges me to focus and see clearly the light, form, and wonderful color present.  Time spent in the saddle, and painting en Plein air, results in an outlook that McLain describes as “Drawn from life, and inspired by life”, which is reflected in her work. See Karen’s “studio tour” here

END OF FRAME OVERO PAINTS

 THE TOBIANO PAINTS

Disclaimer: The mustang photographs on this blog post are presented without genetic testing; we do not know the actual chromosomal make-up of the mustangs. We rely solely upon the horse’s phenotype, or how they appear physically: coat colour, white markings, eye color, mane, and tail colour.

Mammalian Pigmentation: 

The colors found in mammalian hair, skin, irises, and some internal organs is produced by the pigment melanin. Melanin appears as colored granules in these pigmented cells and occurs in two forms, eumelanin, and phaeomelanin. Eumelanin is responsible for brown and black colour, and phaeomelanin is responsible for reds and yellows (Bailey & Brooks, 2013).

Black tobiano (muddy) (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

The absence of melanin will appear as white in mammals. The lack of color typically associated with Paint Horses is caused by the inability of these cells to produce the base colors from birth. The color loss results in large patches of white against a base coat of any colour (bay, chestnut, roan, grey, dun, champagne, silver dapple, palomino, brown, black, etc). Additionally, the white colour has pink skin beneath. 

Assorted tobiano horses (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

There are other forms of white colouration in equines; for example gray or roan. Grey horse color is caused by the failure of melanocytes over time, so the hair starts normally pigmented but loses the ability to maintain the pigment so the horse eventually turns white(Sponenberg, 2009). Roan horses are roan from birth although they are often not recognizable until after the foal coat has shed. Roan horses typically retain the base color on their head, legs, mane, and tail. The skin beneath grey and roan horses is dark and these colors are not actual colours, but rather modifiers that act upon a base coat (Gower, 2016). 

Black tobiano demonstrating the "shield" (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography ™© Karen McLain 

A tobiano horse may also be roan, appaloosa, sabinos, overo, or any other pattern as the tobiano pattern is not a mutually exclusive coat patterns.

Bay Roan tobiano   (Great Desert Basin, Utah) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Roan tobiano foal, palomino tobiano mare  (Great Desert Basin, Utah) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Equine chromosomes

The genes for four white coat patterns: roan (RN), sabinos (SB1), dominant white (W), and tobianos (TO) are located on the KIT gene.The KIT gene is responsible for sending instructions through cells that allow the cell to make specific proteins. The KIT proteins are found on the cell membrane where another protein called a “stem cell factor” binds to the KIT protein. When bound together, they activate the KIT protein, which in turn, activates other proteins within the cell. These proteins serve a variety of functions in mammalian cells such as growth, development, migration, and production of certain cell types such as interstitial gastrointestinal cells and melanocytes (Haase, Jude, Brooks, & Leeb, 2008).

Equine Chromosome #3

The KIT gene is located on the fourth chromosome at the 12 position and located very close is the ECA3 gene. The ECA3, or the third equine chromosome is the location of the chromosomal mutation responsible for tobianos. Although the KIT gene remains normal in these horses, the third chromosome has an area in the gene that has flipped. Approximately one-third the length of the chromosome is an area that is an exact mirror image in tobianos horses. Because the chromosomal inversion is adjacent to the KIT gene, it affects the KIT protein synthesis, and the cells cannot produce melanocytes- so the horse has areas of white. The test for tobianos examines the chromosome and looks for a ‘break’ (telomeric or centromeric) at the positions 13 and 21 on the third chromosome– this serves as an indication they separated and inverted during replication- the horse is genetically a tobianos (Bailey & Brooks, 2009).

The gene for tobiano horses is autosomal dominant. This means to be tobiano, a foal must have at least one tobiano parent, but they also may have two tobiano parents. If one parent is a tobiano, it does not matter what colour or pattern the other parent appears; the foal will be tobiano. If a horse matches the criteria for a tobiano, it is likely the horse has the genetic background of a tobiano, although there may be some mixing of other patterns (Gower, 2016). The patterns are not inherited exactly, however, the proportion of white to colour is inherited. In other words a horse with a lot of white will have offspring with a lot of white but this depends upon the other parent. Interestingly, the study by Woolf (1990) discovered male horses and those with chestnut coats have more white than female or bay horses. The researcher also noted that the inheritance of white leg markings and facial markings is multifactorial; there are many genes involved in the appearance of white markings (Woolf, 1990).

History:

Bay tobiano mare  (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

The Tobiano paint pattern was named for General Tobías from Brazil. The General brought the paint horses to Argentina in the mid-1800’s. Before their arrival, tobiano horses were rare and had been grouped with other spotted-type horses. After General Tobías’ arrival, they were renamed after the general and placed into a unique paint coat classification(Kerson, 2015; Sponenberg, 2009)

Tobiano Characteristics:

Bay tobiano mare (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

The tobiano is defined by several coat characteristics. As with all horses, unless genetically tested, we evaluate the coat pattern by the phenotype or the horses’ physical appearance. As a general rule, tobiano horses have the following characteristics (there are always exceptions to these rules):

1. White cross the spine somewhere between the ears and the tail (Gower, 2016; Sponenberg, 2009)
2. The body white appears to travel down in a vertical fashion (Gower, 2016)
3. The edges of the white areas tend to be crisp and well-defined (Sponenberg, 2009)
4. Legs are white and the edge of the socks/stockings is irregular (Gower, 2016; Sponenberg, 2009)
5. Most tobiano have dark eyes although some tobiano horses have blue eyes  (Sponenberg, 2009)
6.  Most tobianos have white areas within the mane and tail, this gives the appearance of a bicoloured tail, a trait usually seen only in tobiano horses. (Sponenberg, 2009)
7. The predominantly solid coloured heads of tobianos are generally conservatively marked: thin blazes, simple stars (Sponenberg, 2009)

 Some tobianos have very little white

Black tobiano (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Minimally marked black tobiano stallion -note the bicoloured tail (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Bay tobiano stallion (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Black tobiano stallion (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Bay tobiano stallion (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Some tobiano horses have very little base colour but they tend retain normally coloured heads even when extensively white.

Minimally marked light bay chestnut tobiano (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Light bay tobiano (note the minimal blaze) (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Extensively white black marked tobiano (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Some tobiano horses have marks within the white areas and there may be some bleeding of colour between the base colour and the white areas. The smaller spots in the white areas are called ink spots, bear tracks, cat’s paws. The areas of darker colour encroaching on the white areas are referred to as halos. There may also be some roaning at the edge of colour and white.

This is a historical link between these markings and homozygosity. No genetic link has been found, however anecdotally, homozygous horses often present with these marking whilst heterozygous generally do not show these markings. 

Cat's paws & halo effect (San Wash Basin, Colorado) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Bay tobiano with the 'halo' effect (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

References

Bailey, E., & Brooks, S. (2009). Method for screening for a tobiano coat color genotype  #USPatent 8101354 B2.

Bailey, E., & Brooks, S. (2013). Horse Genetics (2nd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: CABI.

Gower, J. (2016). Horse Color Explained: A Breeder's Perspective. Brattleboro, Vermont: Echo Point Books & Media, Inc.

Haase, B., Jude, R., Brooks, S. A., & Leeb, T. (2008). An equine chromosome 3 inversion is associated with the tobiano spotting pattern in German horse breeds. 

Animal Genetics, 39(3), 306-309. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2052.2008.01715.x

Kerson, N. (2015). What Color is that?  A quick guide to horse color identification: Nancy Kerson- Self Published

Sponenberg, D. (2009). Equine Color Genetics (3rd ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell.

Woolf, C. M. (1990). Multifactorial inheritance of common white markings in the Arabian horse. J Hered, 81(4), 250-256.
A special thanks to Nancy Kerson for her brilliant book "What Color is that? A quick guide to horse color identification" and to the Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary. A worth sanctuary for wild horses.

How to perform research....

Why do we need research? 
For myself, it is a scholarly inquiry, curiosity, and the desire to learn more about the world. I want to be able to discuss issues in the mustang community in a voice that is backed by as much research as I can find.

Research is not perfect, scientists aren't always truthful and fudge their data (read up on the Fat vs. Big Sugar issue, a recent discovery that changed the way we view the relative nutrition of fatty foods.). A lot of research is funded by grants, (money) and the grants come from big companies. The companies, in turn, have agendas and sometime scientist may tweak data to please their benefactors to get more grants. There are also predatory journals which publish articles that are not scholarly or scientific so just because you see someone "published," it may not mean much (more about those journals later).

If you find a lot of studies that say the same thing over and over (vaccines are safe and not to linked autism) and one study that conflicts with those studies (vaccines cause autism). It might be prudent to err on the side of the majority and conclude vaccines do NOT cause autism (and the author of the 'vaccines cause autism study 'admitted he made up his data- he lied). Most data is scientifically rigorous, subject to strict rules and regulations including behavior regarding human and animal subjects in research. This committee is called the "Institutional Review Board".

The IRB: Every University or college that conducts must have an Institutional Review Board (IRB) which oversees the subjects in research whether human or animal. The rules are very strict and this group reviews EVERY proposed study. If you want to know more, Google the university name and IRB. You'll find a ton of information regarding animal handling, care, and what is acceptable and humane. They have links to report studies you think are behaving in an unethical manner however you must have first hand knowledge of the behavior and you need proof. You can't use a recycled photo of a horse with sutures/staples along the animal's flank claiming this study is harmful. Remember, a university may not agree with your definition of ethical. I picked Montana State University as an example, please take a look. (http://www.montana.edu/orc/iacuc/).

Research is the foundation of the scientific community, it drives our quest for knowledge and provides answers to questions. It allows you to make a statement "Fast Thoroughbreds win races" and back it with over one hundred studies conducted at universities all over the world, not to mention horses races all over the world as well. (I have a rescued off the track Thoroughbred, he is not fast hence why he's home stuffing himself full of lush grass).

Some studies discover things that are directly opposite other studies. It may seem that no one has answers, but that is also the appeal of research. Be curious, ask questions, never stop learning.

How does one conduct research? It's not as challenging as you might think. You need scientific sources usually in the form of research articles published in reputable scholarly journals. How do I know so much about research? I spent the past three years studying research for my doctoral degree. My research was on cervical cancer screening intervals, but I learned a lot about research in general. I have a bachelor’s degree in biology, nursing, and a Masters in Nursing in addition to a Doctorate of Nursing Practice. My husband is an environmental educator (herpetology), and he has worked for US Fish & Wildlife, the Peace Corps, and is an expert on wildlife conservation. I hope you find this blog post educational as well as entertaining.

-Dr. Meredith Hudes-Lowder

First, you must begin with a question. We will look at the lethal white syndrome as an example later on. The best place to start is Google Scholar. You can use plain Google, but if you're looking for research studies, it's a better place to start your search. Go to Google and type in Scholar, this will take you to Google Scholar https://scholar.google.com/

Now you need keywords- words that will help refine your search on your topic. You'll need to be as accurate as possible to narrow the search field. Sometimes the keywords are terms you may not agree with such as the keyword “feral” for wild horses, but it is a scientific term used to describe wild horses. Use different but similar words like horse, stallion, band, herd, mare, foal, wild, feral, mustang, equine, equid, behavior, ethology; you get the idea. Once you get an article that deals with your topic, the authors often provide keywords for their article, and this can help you find better keywords to refine your search efforts along with the titles of the articles themselves.

Remember, all you need is one or two decent studies published on your topic in the past five years or so to seed your research studies. From those studies, the reference list at the end of each article is a treasure trove of other articles related to your search. Other useful types of articles are systematic reviews, meta-analysis, or an integrative review. These studies are reviews of a lot of other studies. A “Systematic Review of the Temperament of Chestnut Horses” would be a study examining a lot of other studies on chestnut horse temperament. It's a summary of the available research and very useful to find. Some of the journal publishing groups will allow you to view the abstract AND will list all the articles that used that article in their study. The “cited by…” is an excellent tool and is often a springboard to other articles related to your topic. Sometimes the web page will ‘suggest’ other studies based on your search terms/keywords. (See the research example below). Use systematic review or open access in your searches.

Abstracts without the full study. As you perform research, you may find there is a fee to view the whole article. Some research is Open Access and the author/publisher posts the full version visible to everyone; some journals are private.  Unless you are affiliated (work for a university, you are a student and have access to a university library), you may not be able to read the whole article. The abstract is an excellent starting point it's a summary of the study and gives a quick overview of to what the researchers discovered in their study. If you can't get the full article, the abstract gives you a general idea of the findings of the study and is meaningful.

If you are lucky enough to have an entire article to read, I usually start with the abstract, then the background and significance, followed by the discussion/conclusion. I like to know what the researchers found before I read through the methods, data analysis, and results sections. A lot of numbers gives me the willies, and as much as I love research, I get headaches when there are a lot of tables of numbers. If you want to research and do a decent job, learn the basics of research. Invest in few good books on research and a beginner’s guide to statistics. Most data are analyzed using statistics, and a basic knowledge is useful. (Note that the word data is plural in scientific research).

Journals: Size does matter

Journals: How do you know if a journal is respected and scholarly? It is pretty simple, the number of citations. A citation is a reference or footnote where the author of one article quotes or takes excerpts from another article. They are usually written as (Hudes-Lowder, 2016) or add a number to the sentence. Hudes-Lowder said all Thoroughbreds are great horses^{1 .} This number or article referenced can usually be found at the end of the paper or the bottom of the page if it is a footnote. Unless a citation is enclosed in quotes,  the author is paraphrasing the results of another research study. 

If a research article is good, people will use it as a reference in their paper, so articles with a lot of citations are considered good research.  How can you find this magic number? The impact factor is defined as the number of citations,  go to the Web of Science (http://www.scijournal.org/index.html) and you'll be able to locate the journal’s “impact factor.”  Type in the name of a journal and see the impact factor. The higher the number, the more citations found for articles in that journal. Most journals are between 0.5-5 although a few medical journals in medicine have an impact factor greater than forty. It is not a perfect system, but it does offer a way to quantify research. Be a research snob, only use the best journalsand well cited articles!

What are peer reviewed journals? By strict definition, a peer-reviewed journal is one in which the submitted articles are reviewed by “peers” in your chosen field of science. For example, a nursing journal is reviewed by other nurses.  The term “peer” is a bit of misnomer because the review board members are regarded as experts in their field and not necessarily on the same scientific or academic level as new graduate right out of a Masters level program. However, peer-reviewed journals are more scholarly, and therefore better than non-peer reviewed journals since the submitted articles are jJudged by a panel of experts. The exception to this type of peer review are the predatory pay- er-publication journals, but we will talk about those later.

Scholarly vs. Predatory Pay-per-Publication Journals 

A well-known 'wildlife ecologist' n the mustang community published a paper (2014) in the Journal of Life Science. Curious, I looked up the journal’s impact factor but could not find any reference to this journal. I went to the journals website and found it was a member of the Science Publishing Group. Claiming to be peer reviewed, this group publishes journals, none of which were familiar. Immediately, I became suspicious that this was a predatory pay-per-publication journal. There is a website that tracks these journals that essentially publish anything for a fee. The peers who review the submitted journals are often fictions or scientists with no standing in the scientific community. 

These journals have no credibility, no academic or scientific value, and they are regarded as jokes by most scientists. Only very desperate scientists and people who were dismissed from colleges, universities, and research labs publish in these journals. To the average person who doesn't know much about research, it looks prestigious to see an article published peer-review viewed journal but remember, not all journals are equal. They are called predatory because they prey on recent graduates who may have trouble publishing and may not know these journals are disreputable.  While I was in school, I regularly received emails from predatory journals and universities warn students about them early in most programs. 

Along with poor quality journals, avoid articles published in magazines like Time. Time magazine utilizes decent research, but you should review the reference list at the end of the article. The same applies to a newspaper, ANYTHING you read online, Wikipedia, people who quote or cite themselves, and always remember to question everything. Just because it is online, that doesn't mean it is true and check citations. People can write anything and claim it came from a source, but you should check the actual source.  Even reputable scholarly journals can be fooled by research so keep an open mind and be curious. You'd be surprised how much false information is on the Internet especially in the mustang advocacy.

Here are some humorous posts regarding the Science Publishing Group…

https://scholarlyoa.com/2014/06/17/science-publishing-group-publishes-junk-science/

http://scienceblogs.com/aardvarchaeology/2012/12/13/nice-try-science-publishing-group/

Remember if an article you are reading comes from a journal that asks for money to publish and offers 50% off your first article; it's best to 'move along, these are not the journals you are looking for'.
-Dr Hudes-Lowder

Books are available online or in libraries, and these can be used for research. For scientific research, it is best to avoid ‘self-published’ books from Blurb or CreateSpace or similar self-publishers. It's not to say these books are without merit, but they are usually not shining examples of rigorous scientific inquiry. Otherwise, they would have been picked up by a publishing house. Many represent the view of the author and not necessarily hard science, so it's probably best to leave the conspiracy theorists on the shelf when conducting serious or scholarly research. 

Research example:

I decided to research lethal white syndrome as an example because it appears in mustang populations and I am fascinated by coat color inheritance. It is an inherited condition and as the name state, lethal in newborn foals. There is a blog post about this condition here.

I went to Google Scholar and typed “lethal white horse foal genetics” and the fifth link looked the best with not a lot of biochemistry or complex genetics terms.  “Lethal white foals in matings of overo spotted horses.” Even though my science strengths are ethology (animal behavior), genetics, and medicine, I find some articles have titles I cannot grasp at first glance. I like articles with titles I comprehend immediately, with this in mind- I selected the fifth link. Clicking on the link takes me here:

The journal  Theriogenology has a respectable impact factor of 1.798 (2014/2015) and is published by Science Direct which is well regarded in the scientific community.  The author has a Ph.D. which is important because it means he worked for a minimum of two and as many as six years at a university performing research and learning how to write for scientific publications. At the bottom of the page is ‘Citing Articles,' in this case, there are 13 listed. Scrolling down the page, we find citing articles (light blue circle), recommended articles (pink circle) and note the small PDF icon (circled in yellow with an arrow). The recommended articles are based on your keywords and similarity to the article about the lethal white syndrome.

The PDF icon (also document or text icon) is great to find. This means the article is free and you can download it. I usually recommend downloading any article you can in your topic. The reference section at the back of each article is also an excellent resource. Create a folder with your research topic as the folder name and download all articles and abstracts to that folder. A good recommendation is to save the file with the title of the article rather than the alphanumerics that is usually the filename - otherwise, you'll have fifteen articles without titles, and you'll end up having to open each one to find the article you were looking for. 

Once you have the article or the abstract on a particular topic, print them out. Now, sit down with a large cup of coffee and at least five highlighters in different colors, a four color pen and read. Highlight things that make sense and get a feel for the study and what authors found in their research. Keep a legal pad hand and write the author(s)and the date of the study- then summarize.  If you plan to publish your spectacular research online, download a copy of "EndNotes" (http://endnotes.com) and use it to format your word processor in a scholarly fashion It puts in your citations and formats your reference section. It's free and wonderful. It will format for APA, MLA, and AMA as well as other recognized scientific formats.

I sincerely hope this blog was useful, if you have questions, please don't hesitate to contact me. drhudeslowder@gmail.com

-Meredith

Perpendicular Approach -Stallion Interaction #2

The Weekly Post

Week of July 17, 2016

Series: Stallions Interactions #2-Perpendicular Approach

© Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography 

© Karen McLain Studio

http://www.equusferus.com/

http://www.karenmclain.com/

In last week's post on stallions, I discussed the behaviour of stallions. In this post in the continuing series The Interaction between Stallions we examine the “approach”. Generally stallions meet and size one another up before getting within striking distance. Of note, is when stallions approach one another, often one horse will pivot so that they are perpendicular to one another. This behaviour is similar to animals who puff themselves up to appear larger and more formidable to predators or other males.

Additionally, when two stallions approach one another, there is often a lot of posturing consisting of arched necks, raised tails, pawing the ground, squealing, and the action of their legs is high. The trot and canter become big, extended, and powerful. When they approach more closely, they turn to face one another and press nostrils close with necks arched- this may be accompanied by squealing or striking out with a foreleg. Sometimes they fight, and sometimes they go in different directions. In the photos presented in this album, we can clearly see the perpendicular stance of two stallions approaching one another.

The last photo is of Cowboy (paint) and Snowman (grey). Both of these stallions grew up in a bachelor band together. They have been 'sharing' the duties of a band stallion for Mayday (colt) and Heidi (mare). They know each other well especially with regards to fighting capabilities and frequently spar with one another. At the time of this photo, Cowboy was leading the small band, and Snowman was the 'satellite' or lieutenant stallion. However, Cowboy was usurped by Snowman within a month of this photograph. The father of the colt in this band, Mayday, is unknown because his mother Heidi gave birth to him while still in her natal band.

GETTING READY for the MUSTANG WALKABOUT 2016

Today I took out and examined my equipment (happy dance)...

Camera: I bring a Canon 7D Mark ii and a back-up Canon Rebel T3ii. The lenses fit both. I usually have them professionally cleaned over the winter so they are ready for the spring, summer, and autumn photography trips.

Lenses: I use a 100-400mm image stabilised Canon lens most of the time. The Rebel has a 18-135 mm for panoramic vistas. I carry both in the field to make sure my lenses overlap. I also have a 18-55 mm but that won't cover the area from 55-100 mm so I bring the 18-135 mm. This way I have a full range of lens choice that overlap. A lot of camera stores sell refurbished used lenses and this is a great way to get a lens for a reduced price.  You must have a lens with a minimum distance of 300 mm because you cannot approach the horses closer than 100 feet in most management areas so a long lens is crucial.

Memory Cards: I buy new cards every year. The most important thing is the speed and the size. Get a size that you won't have to swap cards out frequently, but make sure to have extras. I find the highest speeds to be the best for mustang photography. For the SD Cards, go for 90-95mb/sec read/write and Class 3. Compact Flash Cards come in 120mb/s for the high speed setting. You want to be able to use the camera's rapid fire capability, so you'll want the card to match the speed of the camera. I also recommend many smaller sized cards versus one huge card. I usually carry 64MB, 32MB and few 16MB.

If something spectacular happens (and it often does), those photos may turn out to be some of your best work, take the card out of the camera and put it in a safe place when the action is over. The precious photos will be safe and you won't have to deal with a card failure (rare, but it happens). I kept my first photos of Picasso on a CF Card and carried all the way home after backing it up multiple times.  Another trick- I keep empty cards in my right pocket, and used cards in my left. They are numbered 1,2,3 etc and this way I instantly know what cards are used and which are empty.

Batteries: I carry four. Two are in the battery-grip for the camera all the time and so far, I haven't had to replace the double battery even after 12 hours of shooting. But I always carry four freshly charged batteries in the field. The back-up camera has a single battery and I carry a spare. We charge them using car charger adaptors or we also use a PowerVerter or Power Inverter which offers plugs and uses the car lighter for the power source. We charge batteries while we drive to save time.

Monopod/Tripod: There are wonderful to stabilise your camera. At places like the waterhole, there is a lot of action going on all the time. Karen usually has one leg of her tripod extended and she will drop the other two if it looks like we will be stationary for a while. I usually carry the tripod with all three legs extended.

External Hard Drives: I carry a 2TB hard drive and a ColorSpace UDMA2 and I upload every night. I don't even look at the photos until they are backed-up on two external hard drives and then, sparingly. Once I am home, they get backed up via the Cloud and the hard drive goes into the safe. Only then do I go through all the photos. The nice part about the ColorSpace is functions as a hard drive AND as a file viewer with a nice sized LCD screen.

Computer/ Laptop: I bring my Macbook into the field. It is very light and has a nice sized screen. I opted for the Macbook over the Macbook-Air because the Macbook run Photoshop- always useful to have to examine photos if necessary or after they are backed-up.

Binoculars: As an avid bird watcher, I have a good sturdy pair. You'll need them for the bands in the distance.  I have a simple pair of 8x42 Bushnell.

Sundries:

• Snake bite kit, yes there are snakes out on the range. So far, no one has been bitten, just watch where you put your feet at all times. The Prairie Rattlesnake is generally docile but even the shyest snake will bite if it is stepped on. Some people wear snake-gaiters and I carry a pair.
• Sunscreen- tons of the stuff
• Cooling evaporative towel (Frog Tog)
• Lens cleaning kits
• Storm covers- some of the best photos are just before a storm but protect your camera at all times.
• Food/water/cellphone with car charger

*Always let some know where you are, how long you plan to be there and when you expect to return.

At the Waterhole : Post for 7 July 2016

Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™

Published by Meredith Hudes-Lowder · 1 hr · 

At the Waterhole

Sand Wash Basin, Colorado 2015

Photography by Karen McLain Studio 

© Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™

© Karen McLain Studio.

The Waterhole

This is the place to see and to be seen in the mustang world.  Bands come into the waterhole at a dead run, or at a leisurely sedate pace. It is the chance to show off, particularly for the bachelors (studs) who derive great pleasure in chasing each other around and engaging in sparring. It is a chance for band stallions to demonstrate the fitness of their bands. The bands drink in order of dominance; the more dominant drink first while the subordinate bands, bachelors, and lone horses drink last.

There is a lot going on in this photo. In the foreground we have Cowboy (chestnut paint), May Day (dun), and his dam Heidi (pale dunskin). In the background we have Corona and his band (refer to the image below where Heather Robson provided the identification).  Cowboy and Corona eye one another- one stallion to another. It is a glance of appraisal and of acknowledgement but not one of confrontation. The necks remain relaxed and the ears are directed towards one another. Cowboy has healthy action in his trot but it is not excessive.

When stallions intend to spar, the necks are arched and their gait is high, extended, and powerful. They do not play, there is deadly intent in their strikes and blows. Often, the stallions approach with arched necks and simply exchange breath by breathing through mutual nostrils. They may squeal and strike-out, but these often end peacefully; each stallion walking away without any fighting. However, sometimes they fight. Injuries are common and while not usually life threatening, can be debilitating especially if a leg is inured and with more extreme injuries, they face the loss of their band.

Corona runs a very tight ship. He is aggressive, and does not allow any member to successfully challenge his authority. His son Indiana Jones “Indy” is five years old (2011 foal - dark liver chestnut, star, lower very thin blaze and snip) has been stirring up trouble and trying to copulate with the mares in the band and fighting his father. There is a similar situation on Pryor Mountain where Bolder’s older son Echo is also remaining within the band unit and trying to reproduce with a mare in the band as well. Bolder has pushed Echo to the periphery of the band. 

Some scientist theorise that the stallions tolerate their older sons because they act as sentinels 
and lessen the burden of watching for rivals/or predators. Some band stallions even tolerate 
mating between their sons and mares in the band. Generally, band stallions drive out the 

2-4 year old mares and studs before inbreeding can occur. These groups of bachelors with 
an occasional filly are found scattered throughout the management areas although lone
fillies/mares without a stallion are usually incorporated into other bands.


Wayne L. Linklater, Elissa Z. Cameron, Tests for cooperative behaviour between stallions, 
Animal Behaviour, Volume 60, Issue 6, December 2000, Pages 731-743.

MUSTANG WALKABOUT 2016

We are three weeks out from the Mustang Walkabout 2016. We have six Horse Management Areas in five states planned. Cedar Mountain, Cold Creek, McCullough, Onaqui, Pryor Mountain, and Sand Wash Basin. We have two weeks of travel ahead  (Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, and Nevada) and the Annual Sand Wash Basin Photography Workshop on Wednesday July 27, 2016.


PACKING LIST FOR PHOTOGRAPHY WORKSHOP

(FINAL CHECK-IN Tuesday July 26, 2016- we will know where the horses are and be able to guide you the most efficiently)

What to bring: *Blue is very important to have

Camera: A DSLR is preferred but anything that can take a photo is welcome.
Memory cards- at least three or more- smaller GB's but bring plenty of cards/space
Sun screen: SPF of 50+
Cooler: With ice, fill up in Maybell, Colorado
Snacks: Jerky is great, lots of sodium and protein, nuts, fruit, chips, cheese 
Water/Liquid: Bring at least a gallon of your preferred beverage.
Please PRINT out this map so we can meet in the morning - we will meet on one of the main roads initially.
Map of Sand Wash: Ask at the general store in Maybell, they are very helpful (get the most detailed map- it's the hunting map)
Baby wipes: Useful for cleaning various body parts
Ziplock bag: See Baby wipes above- PACK IN, PACK OUT at Sand Wash
Frogg togg/Cooling evaporative towel
Cell phone/Car charger
Place to zip your carkeys or a deep pocket
Telephoto lens, snuggling up to the mustangs is frowned upon
Tripod/Monopod
Cable Release
Spare battery for camera
Car charger for battery
Sense of humour

* ALWAYS, ALWAYS, ALWAYS let someone know where you are. Someone who is not sitting next to you in the car 

* TEXTING usually works (not all the time, drive to higher ground)

Please let us know if you plan to attend NO LATER THAN SUNDAY EVENING JULY 24th - we will provide cell phone numbers to contact us at that time.

To print, right click and select print
Change the color to black and white and print